Read the passage given below carefully and answer the questions that follow :

1 Archaeology is the scientific study of the remains of past human culture. Archaeologists investigate the lives of early people by studying the objects those people have left behind. Such objects include buildings, artwork, tools, bones and pottery. Archaeologists may make exciting discoveries, such as a tomb filled with gold or the ruins of a magnificent temple in the midst of a jungle. However, the discovery of a few stone tools or grains of hardened corn may reveal even more about early people.

2 Archaeological research is the chief means to learn about societies that existed before the invention of writing about 5,000 years ago. It also provides an important supplement to our knowledge of ancient societies that left written records. In America, archaeology is considered a branch of anthropology, the scientific study of humanity and human culture. European archaeologists, however, think of their work as closely related to the field of history. Archaeology differs from history in that historians mainly study the lives of people as recorded in written documents. Archaeologists look for information about how, where, and when cultures developed. Like other social scientists, they search for reasons why major changes have occurred in certain cultures. Some archaeologists try to understand why ancient people stopped hunting and started farming. Others develop theories about what caused people to build cities and to set up trade routes. In addition, some archaeologists look for reasons behind the fall of such early civilizations as the Mayas in Central America and the Romans in Europe.

3 Archaeologists examine any evidence that can help them explain how people lived in past times. Such evidence ranges from the ruins of a large city to a few stone flakes left by someone making a stone tool long ago.

4 The three basic kinds of archaeological evidence are artefacts, features and Eco facts. Artefacts are objects that were made by people and can be moved without altering their appearance. Artefacts include objects like arrowheads, pots and beads. Artefacts from a society with a written history may also include clay tablets and other written records. Features consist mainly of houses, tombs, irrigation canals and other large structures built by ancient peoples. Unlike artefacts, features cannot be separated from their surroundings without changing their form. Eco facts reveal how ancient people responded to their surroundings. Examples of Eco facts include seeds and animal bones. Any place where archaeological evidence is found is called an archaeological site. To understand the behaviour of the people who occupied a site, archaeologists must study the relationship among the artefacts, features and Eco facts found there. For example, the discovery

of stone spearheads near bones of an extinct kind of buffalo at a site in New Mexico showed that early human beings had hunted buffalo in that area.

5 If objects are buried deep in the ground, their position in the earth also concerns archaeologists. The scientists study the layers of soil and rock in which objects are found to understand the conditions that existed when the objects were placed there. In some places, archaeologists find many levels of deposits called strata. The archaeological study of strata, called stratigraphy, developed from the study of rock layers in geology. Archaeologists use special techniques and equipment to gather archaeological evidence precisely and accurately. They also keep detailed records of their findings because much archaeological research destroys the remains being studied. Locating sites is the first job of the archaeologist. Sites may be above ground, underground or underwater. Some large sites are located easily because they are clearly visible or can be traced from descriptions in ancient stories or other historical records. Such sites include the pyramids of Egypt and the ancient city of Athens in Greece.

6 Archaeologists use systematic methods of discovering sites. The traditional way to find all the sites in a region is through a foot survey. In this method, archaeologists space themselves at measured distances and walk in preset directions. Each person looks for archaeological evidence while walking forward. Scientific methods are used to help discover underground sites. Aerial photography, for example, can reveal variations in vegetation that indicate the presence of archaeological evidence. Archaeologists describe, photograph and count the objects they find. They group the objects according to type and location. Three steps are followed to interpret the evidence found. They are classification, dating and evaluation.

1.1 On the basis of your understanding of the above passage, answer each of the questions given below by choosing the most appropriate option:

(a) The best sources of finding out archaeological facts are

(i) artwork, buildings, bones and pottery.

(ii) tombs filled with gold.

(iii) grains of hardened corn.

(iv) ruins of a magnificent temple.

(b) The basic kinds of archaeological evidence are

(i) artefacts, features and ecofacts.

(ii) Mayan and Roman civilizations.

(iii) cultural developments in written documents.

(iv) cities and trade routes.

(c) An archaeological site is one where

(i) tombs and buildings exists.

(ii) archaeological evidence is found.

(iii) extinct animal bones are located.

(iv) ancient civilisations perished.

(d) In America, archaeology is taken as

(i) lives of people as recorded in written documents.

(ii) study of humanity and human culture.

(iii) closely related to the field of history.

(iv) written records of ancient people.

(e) Archaeologists do not study

(i) ancient hunting and farming.

(ii) ancient cities and trade routes.

(iii) fall of some civilisations.

(iv) weather and climate.

1.2 Answer the following questions briefly:

(a) What do archaeologists do?

(b) What is archaeological research?

(c) What do European archaeologists think of their subject?

(d) What kinds of evidence are used by archaeologists?

(e) What methods do archaeologists employ to discover archaeological sites?

(f) What is stratigraphy?

1.3 Answer any three of the following questions in 25 – 30 words each :

(a) How do archaeologists find out how people lived in the past?

(b) How is archaeology different from history?

(c) What are features and how are they different from artefacts?

(d) How do archaeologists study the behaviour of the people from a particular place?

1.4 Find words/phrases from the passage which are similar in meaning to each of the following :

(a) examine/enquire about (para 1)

(b) exactly (para 5)

(c) system of arranging in classes (para 6)